3.4Het Europees hof voor de rechten van de mens (hierna: EHRM) is in zijn arrest van 4 oktober 2022 in de zaak De Legé tegen Nederland (nr. 58342/15) ingegaan op, kort gezegd, de vraag naar het toepassingsbereik van “the privilege against self-incrimination” (nemo tenetur-beginsel). Het EHRM heeft onder meer het volgende overwogen:
“(ii) General approach to the privilege against self-incrimination
63. The Court has held that the right to remain silent and the right not to incriminate oneself are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6 of the Convention. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (...).
64. The privilege against self-incrimination does not protect against the making of an incriminating statement per se but against the obtaining of evidence by coercion or oppression. In this latter context, the Court has held as follows in its judgment in Ibrahim and Others (...):
“... The Court, through its case-law, has identified at least three kinds of situations which give rise to concerns as to improper compulsion in breach of Article 6. The first is where a suspect is obliged to testify under threat of sanctions and either testifies in consequence or is sanctioned for refusing to testify. The second is where physical or psychological pressure, often in the form of treatment which breaches Article 3 of the Convention, is applied to obtain real evidence or statements. The third is where the authorities use subterfuge to elicit information that they were unable to obtain during questioning.”
65. For an issue to arise from the perspective of the protection against self-incrimination, therefore, an applicant must firstly have been subject to some form of coercion or compulsion by the authorities (...). Secondly, for a case to fall within the scope of protection of the right not to incriminate oneself, either that compulsion must have been applied for the purpose of obtaining information which might incriminate the person concerned in pending or anticipated criminal proceedings against him or her, or the case must concern the use of incriminating information compulsorily obtained outside the context of criminal proceedings in a subsequent criminal prosecution (...).
66. The underlying principle for this is the fact that the right not to incriminate oneself presupposes, in particular, that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resorting to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention (...).
67. The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned, however, with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. As commonly understood in the legal systems of the Contracting Parties to the Convention and elsewhere, it does not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect such as, inter alia, documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood and urine samples and bodily tissue for the purpose of DNA testing (...). However, where such evidence has been obtained by a measure which breaches Article 3, the privilege against self-incrimination remains applicable (...).
68. In cases where the privilege against self-incrimination is applicable (...), the Court has held – noting that the right not to incriminate oneself is not absolute (...) – that the degree of compulsion applied will be incompatible with Article 6 where it destroys the very essence of the privilege (...). Not all direct compulsion will destroy the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination and thus lead to a violation of Article 6. In examining whether, in a given procedure, compulsion has extinguished the very essence of this privilege, the Court will consider, in particular, the nature and degree of the compulsion, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure and, crucially, the use to which any material so obtained is put (...).
(iii) The privilege against self-incrimination and coercion to supply documents in the context of financial law matters
69. In principle, the privilege against self-incrimination can also apply in situations of coercion to supply documents. In developing its case-law in financial law matters falling under the criminal head of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention, the Court has however made distinctions, in particular as to the pre-existence of such materials and as to whether the authorities were aware of their existence. (...)
(iv) Summary of the above case-law
74. In order for an issue to arise from the perspective of the privilege against self-incrimination, there must be some form of coercion or compulsion exerted on the person concerned. It is furthermore required that either that person is subject to existing or anticipated criminal proceedings – that is to say, a “criminal charge” within the autonomous meaning of Article 6 § 1 –, or incriminating information compulsorily obtained outside the context of criminal proceedings is used in a subsequent criminal prosecution (see paragraph 65 above). These may be considered the two prerequisites for the applicability of the privilege against self-incrimination (...).
75. Where these prerequisites are met, it is necessary to determine whether the use of evidence obtained by means of coercion or compulsion should nevertheless be considered as falling outside the scope of protection of the privilege against self-incrimination. As it transpires from the Court’s case law, the right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. When methods of coercion are used with the aim of having an accused person answer questions or make testimonial statements, either orally or in writing, the will to remain silent is clearly not respected and the privilege against self-incrimination thus applies. The privilege does not, however, extend to the use in criminal proceedings of materials obtained from an accused through methods of coercion when these materials have an existence independent of his or her will (...).
76. Where the use of documentary evidence obtained under threat of penalties in the context of financial law matters is concerned, it may further be deduced from the Court’s case-law (...), that such use does not fall within the scope of protection of the privilege against self-incrimination where the authorities are able to show that the compulsion is aimed at obtaining specific pre-existing documents – thus, documents that have not been created as a result of the very compulsion for the purpose of the criminal proceedings – which documents are relevant for the investigation in question and of whose existence those authorities are aware. That situation is to be distinguished from the situation where the authorities attempt to compel an individual to provide the evidence of offences he or she has allegedly committed by forcing him or her to supply documents which they believe must exist, although they are not certain of it (...). The latter situation the Court has described as “fishing expeditions”. The Court considers that in that context a parallel may be drawn with testimonial evidence: when a person makes a statement which incriminates him or her, he or she is similarly providing the authorities with information of whose existence those authorities were not yet aware. Where the making of that statement came about as a result of coercion or compulsion, an issue arises under the privilege against self-incrimination, since, as set out above (...), it is incumbent on the prosecution in a criminal case to prove their case without resort to evidence obtained through such methods.
77. Lastly, it follows from the case-law that, regardless of whether or not the authorities are aware of the existence of documentary or other material evidence, if this has been obtained by methods in breach of Article 3, its use will always fall within the scope of the privilege against self-incrimination (...).
78. If the prerequisites for the applicability of the privilege against self-incrimination are met (...), and the use of evidence obtained through coercion or compulsion does fall within the scope of protection of that privilege (...), it is necessary to examine whether the procedure did not extinguish the “very essence” of the privilege, that is to say, to determine the manner in which the overall fairness of the proceedings was affected. For this purpose, it will be necessary to have regard, in turn, to the factors set out in paragraph 68 above: the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained is put.”
Het oordeel van de Hoge Raad
3.5.1Het hof heeft het volgende vastgesteld. De politie heeft de verdachte aangemerkt als verdachte van, kort gezegd, invoer van illegaal vuurwerk omdat minimaal één postpakket met illegaal vuurwerk voor de verdachte op zijn adres was afgeleverd. Dat postpakket was afkomstig van een Poolse webshop voor professioneel, voor particulieren verboden vuurwerk. Vervolgens heeft de politie de verdachte via een brief ontboden voor een verhoor. Deze brief houdt onder meer in: “Ik vorder u op grond van artikel 19 van de Wet op de Economische Delicten alle gegevens, welke betrekking hebben op bestellen en ontvangen van vuurwerk, mee te nemen naar het verhoor. Denk hierbij onder andere aan facturen, bestelbevestigingen, etc.”
Verder heeft het hof geconstateerd dat de gevorderde stukken niet door de politie eigenmachtig konden worden verkregen, waaraan het hof de conclusie heeft verbonden dat de verkrijging van die stukken afhankelijk was van de wil van de verdachte. Daarnaast heeft het hof overwogen dat niet kon worden uitgesloten dat de informatie die uit de verzochte stukken blijkt in een strafzaak tegen de verdachte zou kunnen worden gebruikt.
3.5.2Voor zover het hof voor zijn oordeel dat de vordering tot het verstrekken van deze stukken een schending van het uit artikel 6 EVRM voortvloeiende nemo tenetur-beginsel oplevert, mede beslissend heeft geacht dat de gevorderde stukken niet door de politie eigenmachtig konden worden verkregen en de verkrijging van die stukken daarmee afhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte was, heeft het hof een maatstaf aangelegd die niet in overeenstemming is met het beoordelingskader in de onder 3.4 weergegeven uitspraak van het EHRM. Uit dat beoordelingskader volgt immers dat, waar het gaat om het verkrijgen van de daarin genoemde “specific pre-existing documents”, voor de toetsing aan artikel 6 EVRM beslissend is of de autoriteiten bekend zijn met het bestaan van dergelijke stukken, maar niet of de autoriteiten die stukken (ook) eigenmachtig hadden kunnen verkrijgen (vgl. overweging 76). Daarnaast volgt uit die uitspraak ook niet dat de omstandigheid of de autoriteiten stukken eigenmachtig konden verkrijgen, bepalend is voor de beantwoording van de vraag of dergelijke stukken moeten worden gezien als “materials” met “an existence” die “independent of [the] will” van de verdachte is (vgl. overweging 75).
3.5.3Voor zover het cassatiemiddel hierover klaagt, slaagt het. Dit leidt echter niet tot cassatie. Daarbij neemt de Hoge Raad in aanmerking dat in de vaststellingen van het hof besloten ligt dat de betreffende vordering – tot het meenemen van “alle” gegevens die betrekking hebben op bestellen en ontvangen van “vuurwerk”, waarbij “onder andere” kan worden gedacht aan facturen, bestelbevestigingen “etc.” terwijl de verdachte er al van verdacht werd dat hij illegaal (professioneel) vuurwerk via internet had gekocht – een situatie opleverde “where the authorities attempt to compel an individual to provide the evidence of offences he (...) has allegedly committed by forcing him (...) to supply documents which they believe must exist, although they are not certain of it (...). The latter situation the Court has described as ‘fishing expeditions’.” (EHRM 4 oktober 2022, nr. 58342/15 (De Legé/Nederland), overweging 76). Dat brengt mee dat in de gegeven omstandigheden de vervolging van de verdachte voor handelen in strijd met de in het belang van de opsporing op grond van artikel 19 lid 1 WED gedane vordering, een schending oplevert van het uit artikel 6 EVRM voortvloeiende “privilege against self-incrimination” (nemo tenetur-beginsel).