De uitspraak in de zaak Murray tegen Nederland (EHRM 26 april 2016, nr. 10511/10), waarin een schending van art. 3 EVRM is aangenomen, houdt omtrent de "relevant principles" in relatie tot de oplegging en de tenuitvoerlegging van de levenslange gevangenisstraf het volgende in:
"(a) Life sentences
99. It is well established in the Court's case-law that the imposition of a sentence of life imprisonment on an adult offender is not in itself prohibited by or incompatible with Article 3 or any other Article of the Convention (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 97, and references cited therein), provided that it is not grossly disproportionate (see Vinter and Others, cited above, § 102). The Court has, however, held that the imposition of an irreducible life sentence on an adult may raise an issue under Article 3 (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 97). A life sentence does not become irreducible by the mere fact that in practice it may be served in full. No issue arises under Article 3 if a life sentence is de jure and de facto reducible (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 98, and Vinter and Others, cited above, § 108). On the basis of a detailed review of the relevant considerations emerging from its case-law and from recent comparative and international-law trends in respect of life sentences, the Court has found in Vinter and Others that a life sentence can remain compatible with Article 3 of the Convention only if there is both a prospect of release and a possibility of review, both of which must exist from the imposition of the sentence (see Vinter and Others, cited above, §§ 104‑118 and 122). It further observed in that case that the comparative and international law materials before it showed clear support for the institution of a dedicated mechanism guaranteeing a review no later than twenty-five years after the imposition of a life sentence, with further periodic reviews thereafter (ibid., § 120, see also Bodein v. France, no. 40014/10, § 61, 13 November 2014). It is for the States to decide – and not for the Court to prescribe – what form (executive or judicial) that review should take (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 99, and Vinter and Others, cited above, §§ 104 and 120). The Court has held that presidential clemency may thus be compatible with the requirements flowing from its case-law (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 102).
100. The Court has further found that a prisoner cannot be detained unless there are legitimate penological grounds for incarceration, which include punishment, deterrence, public protection and rehabilitation. While many of these grounds will be present at the time when a life sentence is imposed, the balance between these justifications for detention is not necessarily static and might shift in the course of the execution of the sentence. It is only by carrying out a review of the justification for continued detention at an appropriate point in the sentence, that these factors or shifts can be properly evaluated (Vinter and Others, cited above, § 111). The review required in order for a life sentence to be reducible should therefore allow the domestic authorities to consider whether, in the course of the sentence, any changes in the life prisoner and progress towards his or her rehabilitation are of such significance that continued detention is no longer justified on legitimate penological grounds (ibid., § 119). This assessment must be based on rules having a sufficient degree of clarity and certainty (ibid., §§ 125 and 129; see also László Magyar v. Hungary, no. 73593/10, § 57, 20 May 2014, and Harakchiev and Tolumov v. Bulgaria, nos. 15018/11 and 61199/12, §§ 255, 257 and 262, ECHR 2014 (extracts)) and the conditions laid down in domestic legislation must reflect the conditions set out in the Court's case-law (see Vinter and Others, cited above, § 128). Thus, a possibility of being granted a pardon or release on compassionate grounds for reasons related to ill-health, physical incapacity or old age does not correspond to the notion of "prospect of release" as formulated in the Kafkaris judgment (see Vinter and Others, cited above, § 127, and Öcalan v. Turkey (no. 2), nos. 24069/03, 197/04, 6201/06 and 10464/07, § 203, 18 March 2014). A Chamber of the Court held in a recent case that the assessment must be based on objective, pre‑established criteria (see Trabelsi v. Belgium, no. 140/10, § 137, ECHR 2014 (extracts)). The prisoner's right to a review entails an actual assessment of the relevant information (see László Magyar, cited above, § 57), and the review must also be surrounded by sufficient procedural guarantees (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 105, and Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, § 262). To the extent necessary for the prisoner to know what he or she must do to be considered for release and under what conditions, it may be required that reasons be provided, and this should be safeguarded by access to judicial review (see László Magyar, cited above, § 57, and Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, §§ 258 and 262). Finally, in assessing whether the life sentence is reducible de facto it may be of relevance to take account of statistical information on prior use of the review mechanism in question, including the number of persons having been granted a pardon (see Kafkaris, cited above, § 103; Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, §§ 252 and 262; and Bodein, cited above, § 59).
(b) Rehabilitation and the prospect of release for life prisoners
101. As set out in the preceding paragraph, the review required in order for a life sentence to be reducible should permit the authorities to assess any changes in the life prisoner and any progress towards rehabilitation made by him or her. In Vinter and Others (cited above) the Grand Chamber thus addressed the problem of how to determine whether, in a given case, a life sentence could be regarded as reducible specifically in the light of the rehabilitation function of incarceration. In this context, it held that it would be incompatible with human dignity – which lay at the very essence of the Convention system – forcefully to deprive a person of his freedom without striving towards his rehabilitation and providing him with the chance to regain that freedom at some future date (ibid., § 113). It went on to note that there was now clear support in European and international law for the principle that all prisoners, including those serving life sentences, be offered the possibility of rehabilitation and the prospect of release if that rehabilitation was achieved (ibid., § 114). While punishment remained one of the aims of imprisonment, the emphasis in European penal policy was now on the rehabilitative aim of imprisonment, even in the case of life prisoners; this was expressed in Rules 6, 102.1 and 103.8 of the European Prison Rules, Resolution (76) 2 and Recommendations Rec(2003)23 and Rec(2003)22 of the Committee of Ministers, statements by the Committee for the Prevention of Torture, and the practice of a number of Contracting States. The same commitment to rehabilitation was to be found in international law, as expressed, inter alia, in Article 10 § 3 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the General Comment on that Article (ibid., §§ 115-118).
102. The Court observes that the principle of rehabilitation, that is, the reintegration into society of a convicted person, is reflected in international norms (see paragraphs 70-76 above) and has not only been recognised but has over time also gained increasing importance in the Court's case-law under various provisions of the Convention (see, apart from Vinter and Others, cited above, for instance Mastromatteo v. Italy [GC], no. 37703/97, § 72, ECHR 2002‑VIII; Dickson v. the United Kingdom [GC], no. 44362/04, § 28, ECHR 2007‑V; James, Wells and Lee v. the United Kingdom, nos. 25119/09, 57715/09 and 57877/09, § 209, 18 September 2012; and Khoroshenko v. Russia [GC], no. 41418/04, §§ 121 and 144‑145, ECHR 2015). In a slightly different context the Court has, moreover, held that, in circumstances where a Government seek to rely solely on the risk posed by offenders to the public in order to justify their continued detention, regard must be had to the need to encourage the rehabilitation of those offenders (James, Wells and Lee, cited above, § 218). One of the aims of rehabilitation is to prevent reoffending and thus to ensure the protection of society.
103. Notwithstanding the fact that the Convention does not guarantee, as such, a right to rehabilitation, the Court's case-law thus presupposes that convicted persons, including life prisoners, should be allowed to rehabilitate themselves. Indeed, the Court has held that " ... a whole-life prisoner is entitled to know ... what he or she must do to be considered for release and under what conditions" (Vinter and Others, cited above, § 122). It has also held, with reference to Vinter and Others, that national authorities must give life prisoners a real opportunity to rehabilitate themselves (see Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, § 264). It follows from this that a life prisoner must be realistically enabled, to the extent possible within the constraints of the prison context, to make such progress towards rehabilitation that it offers him or her the hope of one day being eligible for parole or conditional release. This could be achieved, for example, by setting up and periodically reviewing an individualised programme that will encourage the sentenced prisoner to develop himself or herself to be able to lead a responsible and crime-free life.
104. Life prisoners are thus to be provided with an opportunity to rehabilitate themselves. As to the extent of any obligations incumbent on States in this regard, the Court considers that even though States are not responsible for achieving the rehabilitation of life prisoners (see Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, § 264), they nevertheless have a duty to make it possible for such prisoners to rehabilitate themselves. Were it otherwise, a life prisoner could in effect be denied the possibility of rehabilitation, with the consequence that the review required for a life sentence to be reducible, in which a life prisoner's progress towards rehabilitation is to be assessed, might never be genuinely capable of leading to the commutation, remission or termination of the life sentence or to the conditional release of the prisoner. In this connection the Court reiterates the principle – well established in its case-law – that the Convention is intended to guarantee rights that are not theoretical or illusory, but practical and effective (see, among many other authorities, Gäfgen v. Germany [GC], no. 22978/05, § 123, ECHR 2010). The obligation to offer a possibility of rehabilitation is to be seen as an obligation of means, not one of result. However, it entails a positive obligation to secure prison regimes to life prisoners which are compatible with the aim of rehabilitation and enable such prisoners to make progress towards their rehabilitation. In this context the Court has previously held that such an obligation exists in situations where it is the prison regime or the conditions of detention which obstruct rehabilitation (see Harakchiev and Tolumov, cited above, § 266).
(c) Health care provided to prisoners with mental health problems
105. As regards the treatment of prisoners with mental health problems, the Court has consistently held that Article 3 of the Convention requires States to ensure that the health and well-being of prisoners are adequately secured by, among other things, providing them with the requisite medical assistance (see, among many other authorities, Kudła v. Poland [GC], no. 30210/96, § 94, ECHR 2000‑XI; Sławomir Musiał v. Poland, no. 28300/06, § 87, 20 January 2009; and A. and Others v. the United Kingdom [GC], no. 3455/05, § 128, ECHR 2009). A lack of appropriate medical care for persons in custody is therefore capable of engaging a State's responsibility under Article 3 (see Naumenko v. Ukraine, no. 42023/98, § 112, 10 February 2004). Obligations under Article 3 may go so far as to impose an obligation on the State to transfer prisoners (including mentally ill ones) to special facilities in order to receive adequate treatment (see Raffray Taddei v. France, no. 36435/07, § 63, 21 December 2010).
106. In the case of mentally ill prisoners, the Court has held that the assessment of whether particular conditions of detention are incompatible with the standards of Article 3 has to take into consideration the vulnerability of those persons and, in some cases, their inability to complain coherently or at all about how they are being affected by any particular treatment (see, for example, Herczegfalvy v. Austria, 24 September 1992, § 82, Series A no. 244, and Aerts v. Belgium, 30 July 1998, § 66, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-V). In addition, it is not enough for such detainees to be examined and a diagnosis made; instead, it is essential that proper treatment for the problem diagnosed and suitable medical supervision should also be provided (see Raffray Taddei, cited above, § 59).
(d) Life prisoners with mental disabilities and/or mental health problems
107. Life prisoners who have been held to be criminally responsible for the offences of which they have been found guilty – and who are therefore not considered "persons of unsound mind" within the meaning of Article 5 § 1 (e) of the Convention – may nevertheless have certain mental health problems; they may for instance have behavioural or social problems or suffer from various kinds of personality disorders, all of which may impact on the risk of their reoffending. The Court has not previously dealt with the specific issue of the reducibility of life sentences imposed on persons who have been diagnosed as suffering from a mental disability and/or a mental health condition. Against the background of the case-law set out above (paragraphs 99-106), the Court finds the following approach to be appropriate in this regard.
108. For a State to comply with its obligations under Article 3 of the Convention in respect of life prisoners belonging to this category, the Court considers that it is firstly required that an assessment be made of those prisoners' needs as regards treatment with a view to facilitating their rehabilitation and reducing the risk of their reoffending. This assessment should also address the likely chances of success of any identified forms of treatment, given that Article 3 cannot entail an obligation for a State to enable a life prisoner to receive treatment that is not realistically expected to have any significant impact in helping the life prisoner to rehabilitate himself or herself. For this reason, account is to be taken of the life prisoner's individual situation and personality. The Court, moreover, recognises that certain mental health conditions are not, or not easily, amenable to treatment. Given that, owing to their mental health situation, such life prisoners may not themselves be sufficiently aware of a need for treatment, the aforementioned assessment should be conducted regardless of whether any request for treatment has been expressed by them (see paragraph 106 above). Where the assessment leads to the conclusion that a particular treatment or therapy may indeed help the life prisoner to rehabilitate himself or herself, he or she is to be enabled to receive that treatment to the extent possible within the constraints of the prison context (see the relevant Council of Europe instruments set out in paragraphs 66-69 above; see also paragraph 103 above). This is of particular importance where treatment in effect constitutes a precondition for the life prisoner's possible, future eligibility for release and is thus a crucial aspect of de facto reducibility of the life sentence.
109. Providing life prisoners with a real opportunity of rehabilitation may therefore require that, depending on their individual situation, they be enabled to undergo treatments or therapies – be they medical, psychological or psychiatric – adapted to their situation with a view to facilitating their rehabilitation. This entails that they should also be allowed to take part in occupational or other activities where these may be considered to benefit rehabilitation.
110. In general it will be for the State to decide, and not for the Court to prescribe, which facilities, measures or treatments are required in order to enable a life prisoner to rehabilitate himself or herself in such a way as to become eligible for release. In choosing the means for that purpose, States accordingly have a wide margin of appreciation and this obligation under Article 3 is to be interpreted in such a way as not to impose an excessive burden on national authorities.
111. Consequently, a State will have complied with its obligations under Article 3 when it has provided for conditions of detention and facilities, measures or treatments capable of enabling a life prisoner to rehabilitate himself or herself, even when that prisoner has not succeeded in making sufficient progress to allow the conclusion that the danger he or she poses to society has been alleviated to such an extent that he or she has become eligible for release. In this connection the Court reiterates that States also have a duty under the Convention to take measures to protect the public from violent crime and that the Convention does not prohibit States from subjecting a person convicted of a serious crime to an indeterminate sentence allowing for the offender's continued detention where necessary for the protection of the public (see Vinter and Others, cited above, § 108, with further references). States may fulfil that positive obligation to protect the public by continuing to detain life prisoners for as long as they remain dangerous (see, for instance, Maiorano and Others v. Italy, no. 28634/06, §§ 115‑122, 15 December 2009).
112. In conclusion, life prisoners should thus be detained under such conditions, and be provided with such treatment, that they are given a realistic opportunity to rehabilitate themselves in order to have a hope of release. A failure to provide a life prisoner with such opportunity may accordingly render the life sentence de facto irreducible."