Over de vraag of sprake is van “police incitement” en in hoeverre het optreden van opsporingsambtenaren “essentially passive” is, heeft het EHRM in zijn uitspraak van 15 oktober 2020, nr. 40495/15 (Akbay e.a. tegen Duitsland) overwogen:
“111. When faced with a plea of police incitement, or entrapment, the Court will attempt to establish, as a first step, whether there has been such incitement or entrapment (substantive test of incitement (...)).
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113. In order to distinguish police incitement, or entrapment, from the use of legitimate undercover techniques in criminal investigations, the Court has developed the following criteria.
114. In deciding whether the investigation was “essentially passive” the Court will examine the reasons underlying the covert operation and the conduct of the authorities carrying it out. The Court will rely on whether there were objective suspicions that the applicant had been involved in criminal activity or was predisposed to commit a criminal offence (see Bannikova, cited above, § 38).
115. The Court has found in that context, in particular, that the national authorities had no good reason to suspect a person of prior involvement in drug trafficking where he had no criminal record, no preliminary investigation had been opened against him and there was nothing to suggest that he had a predisposition to become involved in drug dealing until he was approached by the police (see Teixeira de Castro, cited above, § 38; confirmed in Edwards and Lewis v. the United Kingdom [GC], nos. 39647/98 and 40461/98, §§ 46 and 48, ECHR 2004–X; Khudobin v. Russia, no. 59696/00, § 129, ECHR 2006–XII (extracts); Ramanauskas, cited above, § 56; and Bannikova, cited above, § 39; see also Pyrgiotakis, cited above, § 21). The following may, depending on the circumstances of a particular case, be considered indicative of pre-existing criminal activity or intent: the applicant’s demonstrated familiarity with the current prices for drugs and ability to obtain drugs at short notice (compare Shannon v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 67537/01, ECHR 2004–IV); and the applicant’s pecuniary gain from the transaction (see Khudobin, cited above, § 134, and Bannikova, cited above, § 42).
116. When drawing the line between legitimate infiltration by the police and incitement to commit an offence, the Court will further examine the question of whether the applicant was subjected to pressure to commit the offence. In drug cases it has found the abandonment of a passive attitude by the investigating authorities to be associated with such conduct as taking the initiative in contacting the applicant, renewing the offer despite his or her initial refusal, insistent prompting, raising the price beyond average or appealing to the applicant’s compassion by mentioning withdrawal symptoms (see, among other authorities, Bannikova, cited above, § 47, and Veselov and Others v. Russia, nos. 23200/10 and 2 others, § 92, 2 October 2012).
117. The Court has further recognised that a person can also be subjected to entrapment if he or she was not directly in contact with the police officers working undercover, but had been involved in the offence by an accomplice who had been directly incited to commit an offence by the police (compare Lalas v. Lithuania, no. 13109/04, §§ 41 et seq., 1 March 2011). There has been entrapment, as opposed to legitimate undercover techniques in criminal investigations, in these circumstances if the acts of the police represented an inducement to commit the offence for this further person as well (compare Lalas, cited above, § 45, and Grba v. Croatia, no. 47074/12, § 95, 23 November 2017). The Court has taken into account in this connection whether it was foreseeable for the police that the person directly incited to commit the offence was likely to contact other persons to participate in the offence, whether that person’s activities were also determined by the conduct of the police officers and whether the persons involved were considered accomplices in the offence by the domestic courts (compare Lalas, cited above, § 45; see also Ciprian Vlăduț and Ioan Florin Pop v. Romania, nos. 43490/07 and 44304/07, §§ 84-94, 16 July 2015, in which the Court appears to have considered that both the applicant directly in contact with the undercover agent and his accomplice were incited to commit a drug offence).
118. When applying the above criteria, the Court places the burden of proof on the authorities. It falls to the prosecution to prove that there was no incitement, provided that the defendant’s allegations are not wholly improbable. In practice, the authorities may be prevented from discharging this burden by the absence of formal authorisation and supervision of the undercover operation (see Bannikova, cited above, § 48). The Court has emphasised in that context the need for a clear and foreseeable procedure for authorising investigative measures, as well as for their proper supervision. It has considered judicial supervision the most appropriate means in cases of covert operations (see Bannikova, cited above, §§ 49-50, and Matanović, cited above, § 124; compare Edwards and Lewis, cited above, §§ 46 and 48).
119. Where, under the substantive test of incitement, on the basis of the available information the Court has been able to find with a sufficient degree of certainty that the domestic authorities investigated the applicant’s activities in an essentially passive manner and did not incite him or her to commit an offence, that would normally be sufficient for the Court to conclude that the subsequent use in the criminal proceedings against the applicant of the evidence obtained by the undercover measure does not raise an issue under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention (see, for instance, Scholer, cited above, § 90, and Matanović, cited above, § 133).”